For millions of centuries, there has been a society that has given endless contributions to the history of mankind, this has been Ancient Greece. If you want to know a little more about the greek architecture, its origin, characteristics and a little more, do not hesitate to stay and learn with us.
What is Greek Architecture?
Greek architecture is called a style of architecture created and developed by peoples from Ancient Greece, such as the Hellenic people, for example. Their culture flourished in the Peloponnese peninsula, the Aegean islands, and in the colonies of Asia Minor and Italy during the period from 900 BC. C. and the XNUMXst century AD. c.
However, the kind of Greek renaissance and origin in terms of architectural works, took place from the year 600 BC. The best known structures of this culture were its impressive temples, of which very few remain intact, since the great most today are in ruins.
The Parthenon is a clear example of its transcendental constructions, considered the most famous and emblematic sacred temple of the nation. The number two position as the best type of construction is occupied by open-air theaters, whose conservation still exists throughout the Hellenic world and its origin dates back to around 350 BC.
Among the various architectural forms that can be seen today, we could mention the monumental entrance with columns, also called Propylaea, the public squares where citizens used to congregate (agoras), the buildings composed of a succession of columns (these), among other.
However, there are others that are more common to find, such as town halls (bouleuterion), public monuments or monumental tombs (mausoleums) and important sports venues (stadiums). Each one had, in its own way, highly standardized characteristics typical of Ancient Greece, both in structure and decoration.
This point is especially true in the specific case of the temples, since it seems that each building had been conceived as an individual sculptural organism within the landscapes. It was even quite common for them to be located on high elevation terrain, in order to obtain better results.
The elevation brought with it a greater sophistication in its proportions, as well as superior light effects on all its surfaces, so that they could be seen from any angle. The German-British historian, critic and theorist, Nikolaus Pevsner, describes them as works with imposing and intense physical presences superior to those of modernity.
It should be noted that the Greek buildings, unlike the current ones, from the beginning were conceived to be admired from the outside. In this way, greater relevance was given to the exteriors, than to what was found inside. That is why there was a superior effort in the creation of public buildings, temples and sanctuaries.
Greek culture gave very little importance to the homes of ordinary citizens, because they had other kinds of priorities. An example of this is that they planned that their constructions be made to the measure of man, always based on the concept of the whole.
In itself, formally the vocabulary of ancient Greece, especially the division of architectural style, is defined in three well-established orders: the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, each having a fairly profound effect on Western architecture. in later times.
So much so that the architecture of Ancient Rome also took endless elements from the Greek, but always maintaining its clear Italian influence until today. In fact, from the Renaissance period, there were multiple revivals of the Classicism art movement, which used part of it.
These kept alive the precise forms, as well as the order of details that ancient Greek architecture possessed. Likewise, the adoption of the concept of architectural beauty based on balance and proportion is added. The new Renaissance and neoclassical styles that followed continued with these parameters and adapted it in their own way.
Origin
It is known that a good part of the current knowledge of Greek architecture comes from what is called the late archaic period, between 550 and 500 BC. C., century of Pericles between 450 and 430 a. C., and the classical period of Greece between 430 and 400 BC
The examples given are studied in the company of the famous Hellenistic and Roman periods, since Roman architecture is a mere interpretation of the Greek, as well as late written sources, such as that of the Roman architect, writer, engineer and writer of the XNUMXst century BC. C., Vitruvius.
As a result of such a model, there was an important tendency towards the creation of temples, the only buildings of which a considerable number still survive today. To delve deeper into the subject, we could divide its development into several stages, specifically three. These are the following:
Late Archaic Period
The title of the first stage of all is attributed to the late archaic period, made up of various phases with quite marked characteristics. This begins at the beginning of the first millennium before Christ, and ends with the arrival of the first third of the fifth century BC. c.
Its architecture, which has been defined as buildings made on the basis of sensible aesthetic design, while it lasted was a historical period characterized by incessant manufacturing. It had its disappearance in Greece at the end of the Mycenaean period (approximately in the year 1200 BC) and the seventh century BC. c.
Said disappearance occurred when urban life and the prosperity of the societies that made up the region recovered their power to such an extent that entire communities were already capable of undertaking the construction of structures for common use.
However, from then on, a large number of Greek structures during the so-called colonization era (XNUMXth and XNUMXth centuries BC), were made of wood, adobe or clay. Nothing really remains of these, except for a few ground plans, and a few written sources on early architecture and descriptions.
Around 600 BC, the wooden columns that were part of the ancient Temple of Hera at Olympia were replaced with stone columns. This process is called “Petrification”. Gradually other areas of the temple were also petrified until finally everything was made of stone.
When the change of materials through this process was carried out in other sanctuaries, both temples and important buildings, from the sixth century B.C. C. henceforth, they were built mostly with stone. Of this, only a few specimens have been able to survive over the years.
Similarly, the irruption of stone walls to the Greek architectural world led to the replacement of thatched roofs with tiles. In this way, the tiles acted as a new method of improving fire resistance.
In addition to this, during this period the Doric order flourished, while at the same time the Ionic order began. A good example of the transition phase between the archaic and classical periods is the Temple of Poseidon in Paestum, also known as the Temple of Hera II, composed of a rectangular plan, peripter and hexastyle.
Classical period
This second stage corresponds to the time span between the XNUMXth and XNUMXth centuries BC. Like the painting and sculpture of the time, the Greek architecture that emerged in the first half of the classical antiquity art movement was simply not "ars gratia artis" or "art for art's sake" in the sense modern of expression.
Although today the phrase implies the individualism and freedom of art that artists possess, back then, the architect was nothing more than a simple craftsman who had been hired by the state or some wealthy private client. In no way were there distinctions between the architect and the builder.
The architect's main task was to design the buildings and hire the workers and artisans who would build them. Likewise, they also had to be responsible for both their final budget and its completion on time. This way of conceiving the profession lasted on the European continent until the end of the Middle Ages.
In the past, professionals in the field did not have the high status that modern architects have today. Inclusively, to validate said information, it is possible to emphasize the fact that before the XNUMXth century BC. C., the names of the important architects were unknown in their entirety.
A prestigious architect like Ictinus, in charge of three fundamental Greek works (including the Parthenon in Athens), who today is considered a famous and exceptional architect, in life was considered only as a simple valuable merchant. For this period the rise of the Doric and Ionic orders took place.
Hellenistic period
It is the third and last stage of the art of Ancient Greece, which begins in the third century BC. C. and ends in the middle of the 146nd century BC. C. In this period of time, the year XNUMX BC is taken as the symbolic date of completion. C., at the very moment when the Romans managed to conquer the city of Corinth.
The heavy burden of artistic development shifted mainly to the East. At this time, the common buildings seen during the Classic Period were still being made, only with a few novelties, such as:
- Use of the Corinthian as the most emblematic canon.
- Greater use of the combination of orders, only with the Corinthian predominating.
- Greater interpretive flexibility of architectural art.
- overlap arises.
- Special development in the peninsulas of Asia Minor.
With the arrival of Hellenistic architecture, there was the expansion of impressive constructions in Athens (The Olimpeion and The Tower of the Winds), Pergamon (Altar of Zeus), Alexandria (The Lighthouse of Alexandria) and Rhodes (The Colossus of Rhodes). In addition, the imposing Mausoleum of Halicarnassus was created.
Likewise, the foundations were laid for outstanding urban projects such as those carried out by Hippodamus of Miletus, where its organization in a grid stands out, elements that it continued to use in following centuries. However, the rigid Doric style was completely abandoned and the use of the Corinthian style became common.
Features
Due to its complexity and innovation, the architecture of Ancient Greece has several characteristics. Therefore, to delve further into them, it is extremely necessary to divide them into several points. Among the most important we find the following:
Greek Architectural Orders
Despite the fact that there is still much controversy surrounding this issue, the Greek civilization was responsible for largely developing the ornamental function of the columns, architectural elements that already existed well in advance.
These were the main precursors of establishing architectural composition ordinances or canons in three different styles, also called classical orders: Doric Order, Ionic Order and Corinthian Order. While the first two were always the protagonists, each had a profound impact on Western architecture at the time.
Throughout the Hellenistic period the compound capital appears, a mixed classical order that was not part of the group mentioned above. Over the years, Roman society adopted this typology for itself, only they introduced some variations with it.
The columns consisted of a base, capital and shaft, the primary parts that make it up. On them sat the entablature, which consisted of architrave, cornice and frieze. Above the main facades, made up of the gabled roof, were the pediments.
Such styles were recognized above all by the different capitals of the columns. However, there are certain discrepancies in much of the design and decoration components between the orders, such as the ratio between height and diameter of the column and its entablature forms.
It was even the Greeks themselves who used the names Doric and Ionic, thus reflecting the belief that the styles were descendants of the Dorian and Ionian Greeks of the Dark Ages period, which is highly unlikely to be true.
In turn, the characteristics of these orders establish fundamental elements within Greek architecture as follows:
doric order
The Doric order was the first of the three styles that was born in Ancient Greece. This, in addition to being the oldest and simplest, is characterized by having a column supported directly on the floor of the temple without a base. Like a plain capital without any type of adornment, in order to maintain the greatest possible austerity.
Doric responds to one of the two roots of traditional Greek art called Doria, which is closely related to the metal cultures of the European continent. It has around 16 to 20 longitudinal grooves with sharp edges. Starting from the ground, the column decreases in diameter until it reaches the capital, so that the profile of the entasis is formed.
Its pedestal is formed with the help of a tier of three steps, the lower ones named as “stereobates” and the upper one as “stylobate”. Likewise, it is known for its collar with a slit in the shaft, which then has an equinus and a square abacus.
Above the columns is supported by the entablature made up of the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. What was conceived as a Doric architrave is represented as a huge beam resting on top of the columns, but devoid of decoration.
The frieze is composed of triglyphs and metopes that alternate with each other. Regarding its cornice, it protrudes from the frieze and is usually decorated with mútulos, that is, with rectangular stone slabs that are responsible for adorning with rows of three or six drops.
Many people have the belief that its origin dates back to constructions made of wood, of which its forms predate stone. In this way, the triglyphs would respond to the heads of the transverse beams in these wooden buildings.
Because it was a formal and austere style, it was mostly used in the temples of male gods. This appeared in Continental Greece and gradually spread to the Greek colonies in Italy. A good part of the temples of that time, which are still preserved more or less intact, belong to this order.
Among them we could mention the Temple of Hera in Olympia (600 BC), the Temple of Apollo in Corinth (540 BC), the Temple of Hera I and II in Paestum (437th century BC), the Temple of Apollo at Delphi (432th century BC) and the Temple of Hephaestion and the Propylaea in Athens (XNUMX-XNUMX BC).
Experts consider that the style ends with the culmination of the Parthenon of Athens in 432 BC, a temple dedicated to the protector of the city, Athena Parthenos, and one of the main octostyles and peripters where the application of order is demonstrated in the best way.
For its construction, the talented Ictino participated, in the company of his also talented assistant, Calícrates. As for its decoration, the very well-crafted frieze and pediments stand out, a work by the most famous sculptor of Ancient Greece, Phidias. Thanks to an explosion in the War of the Holy League in 1687, a good part of the temple was destroyed.
Ionian Order
For those who don't know, the Ionic order has its origin in another root of Greek art, along with a coastal region of central Asia Minor, Ionia. In that place, what is now the western coast of Turkey and a few Aegean islands, several ancient Greek settlements were found.
This order developed in Ionia in the middle of the XNUMXth century BC, and moved to Continental Greece in the XNUMXth century BC. It had greater preponderance during the Hellenistic period, since it was much more ornate and adapted to its aesthetics, unlike the strict Doric.
Various vestiges show that the evolution of the Ionian was met with resistance in multiple Greek states, since they were understood as the representation of the domain of Athens. Among the earliest extant examples of the Ionian capital is the inscribed votive column on Naxos, dating back to the end of the XNUMXth century BC.
The most emblematic feature of the style is its capital, which has two scrolls or spirals framing the equinus. For its part, the entablature highlights the fact that its architrave is usually shown divided into three horizontal bands, better known as platbands.
The frieze it has is basically a continuous band, without any type of metopes or triglyphs. The columns tend to be more slender, and are occasionally replaced with statues of girls called caryatids, as is the case at the Erechtheum. Compared to the Doric order, this one does have a base that supports the column.
The monumental temple dedicated to the goddess Hera on the island of Samos, made by the impressive architect Reco, is considered the first great Ionian construction, despite having been destroyed some time later by a terrible earthquake.
Likewise, two other temples built on the Acropolis of Athens belong to this order: the Temple of Athena Nike (427-424 BC) and the Erechtheion (421 BC). The Hellenistic buildings that are best preserved to this day, such as the famous Library of Celsus, can be seen in various regions of Turkey.
The main ones are the cities of Pergamon and Ephesus. In the latter we get to the Temple of Artemis or Artemision, known as a member of the 7 wonders of the ancient world, thanks to its incredible architectural style and imagination of human engineering.
Similarly, they can be named the Hellenistic Temple of Apollo at Didyma and the Temple of Athena Polias at Priene. However, in the important and huge Hellenistic cities like Alexandria, in Egypt, almost nothing remains of the constructions that were once made.
Going deeper into Athens, there the Ionic order would influence a few elements of the Parthenon, especially the Ionic frieze that surrounds the temple cell. In addition to this, Ionic columns were also used inside the monumental gateway to the Acropolis, the Propylaea.
Corinthian Order
When we speak of the Corinthian order, we are referring to the latest and most developed style of the classical orders of Greek architecture. Both in this and in the Roman one, it was used a lot, but with small variations, which later gave rise to the compound order.
Its origins date back to ancient times, in the Greek city-states of Corinth. Of all the known Corinthian capitals, the first derives from the Temple of Apollo Epicurus at Bassae, which dates back to the end of the 427th century BC, approximately XNUMX BC.
In them, according to the Roman architect, writer, engineer and writer, Vitruvius, the talented painter and sculptor Callimachus, drew a series of acanthus leaves that surrounded a votive basket. The much more ornate Corinthian style is believed to have been a late development of the Ionic in this same century.
What characterizes the Corinthian order is the sublime and elaborate carved capital, which incorporates even more plant components than in the Ionic order. Around the acanthus, artists caused highly stylized, sculpted leaves to grow from the acanthus plant, the top of which used to sit just below the abacus.
From this part, where we find a double row of acanthus leaves, just a few small calicles or stems emerge that curl little by little in the four corners, just as it is, and how the scrolls do it in the Doric, and in the centers . In addition, the Corinthian, like the Ionic, is used in the interiors and exteriors of the temples dedicated to female deities.
Regarding the frieze, it could be decorated or not, all depending on what the architect wants. The most representative works of the order are the Temple of Olympian Zeus (174 BC) and the Lantern of Lysícrates (335-334 BC), both erected in Athens. The second is a memorial commissioned by the poet Lysícrates to display his trophies.
It should be noted that, in ancient times, the Romans were quite inclined towards the use of the Corinthian order in countless constructions. This was perhaps due to its slender properties. Among its multiple architectural monuments we could mention the Temple of Mars Avenger, the Pantheon of Agrippa and the Maison Carrée in Nimes, France.
Materials
Without a doubt, the Greek civilization had a special preference for marble, mainly used in its public buildings. The best marble came from lands such as Naxos, Paros and Mount Pentelikon, near the city of Athens.
However, wood was initially used not only for the creation of basic architectural elements such as columns, but also for the complete design of buildings. From it and the skills of the carpenters, some decorative elements of the capitals of stone columns and the entablature were developed.
The wood was used to create the support and the roof, the adobe for the walls, fundamentally for houses, and the limestone and marble for the columns, walls and upper portions of the temples and public buildings. As for terracotta, this was used to make ornaments, while metals (preponderant bronze) for decorative details.
Architects, both from the archaic and classical times, made use of such materials for the construction of civic, domestic, religious, funerary and even recreational buildings. The adobe was reserved only for the houses of the lower social classes and without relevance.
In relation to the tile, it should be remembered that the oldest remains of Archaic Greece are documented in a very limited locality around Corinth, a place where the tiles were replacing thatched roofs between 700 and 650 BC, mainly in the temples of Apollo and Poseidon.
Very quickly, this trend spread over the next fifty years, applying to a large number of regions around the Eastern Mediterranean, incorporating mainland Greece, western Anatolia, and southern and central Italy.
The first tiles that arrived in Ancient Greece were “S” shaped and quite bulky, weighing approximately 30 kilograms each. For this reason, they were much more expensive to produce than a simple thatched roof, therefore, their implementation is explained from the resistance to fire, giving greater protection to the temples.
The spread of tiled roofs must be seen in relation to the parallel heyday of monumental architecture in Archaic Greece. By then, only the stone walls that were emerging, replacing the earlier wood and mud walls, were strong enough to support the weight of a tiled roof.
In addition, it cannot be for any reason forgotten that, in general, the appearance of the buildings was very different from how they look today. In the past, they were painted with vibrant colors such as red and blue, so that they attracted much more attention not only for their structure, but also for their polychromy.
In fact, everyone's favorite material was limestone, which was then covered with a delicate layer of marble dust stucco or, to a lesser extent, pure white marble. Also, carved stone was often chamois-polished to provide superior water resistance and give that gleaming touch.
Temples
The society of Ancient Greece is famous throughout the world due to its impressive Doric and Ionic temples, as seen represented in the Parthenon in Athens. This was built in the middle of the XNUMXth century BC in order to house the immense statue of the goddess Athena, and announce how glorious and magnificent Athens was to them.
Even today, such a monument is still regarded as solemn on the city's acropolis. Similarly, there have been other extraordinary temples that deserve great recognition, but belonging to archaic Greek architecture.
Among them stand out the gigantic Temple of Olympian Zeus in Olympia (built between 470-456 BC), the Temple of Artemis or Artemision in Ephesus (built between 575-560 BC), deserving of the title of one of the 7 wonders of the world ancient, and the evocative Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion (built between 444-440 BC), perched on the cliffs overlooking the Aegean Sea.
This last one that was named, clearly demonstrates the Greek desire that such public buildings not only fulfill a basic function, that of housing a simple statue of a divinity, or that of only being admired from up close or from inside, but also that they be views far into the distance by anyone approaching the island.
The experts of the time, made the greatest effort so that the civil Greek architecture will be in charge of building temples in certain preponderant positions, as well as the use of complex geometry. With the main objective of making the building look perfectly straight and harmonized from a distance, the architects took on the task of carrying out various optical tricks.
To achieve this, the tricks that the ingenious artists used were these three: thicken the bottoms of all their columns, thicken the corner columns equally, and place the columns slightly inward.
It is important to note that a large part of these refinements cannot be seen so easily. In fact, at present, only a few advanced measuring devices have the ability to detect the very slight differences in angles and dimensions that exist.
These improvements are clear indicators that the Greek temples were much more than simple functional structures. In addition to this, the building itself, as a whole, was a representation of something symbolic and a transcendental component in what was conceived as a civic landscape.
Theaters
As we know them today, the Greek theaters emerged in the fourth century BC Despite this, they were already built many years before, only in the seventh and sixth centuries they were not yet fully configured. For this reason, it is essential to go back a hundred years.
It is quite likely that by the XNUMXth century BC, we had already been shown a large portion of what would be the theaters of the XNUMXth century BC. However, wood was used for their construction, even though fires were very common, for therefore, not a single one has been preserved.
As we mentioned before, the buildings used to be supported on the slopes of the hills or mountains, in order to take advantage of the unevenness of the land. However, there are also factory-made areas. In itself, they had a set of fixed parts, these are the following:
- Orkestra: From the Greek 'orcheisthai' (in Spanish to dance), the orkhestra is the circular or semicircular space, located outdoors in the lower part of the theatre. It is where the choir dances and sings.
- Skene: area in front with a rectangular and narrow shape, in which the actors act. It has colonnades and, at the same time, rooms contained in the interior, which serve as backstage and dressing rooms. It is located just behind the “orchestra”.
- Proskenion: he is often in front of the stage, for that is also where the actors wait and do their work. It is probable that in the past the lower part was made of stone, while the upper part was made of a weaker material, that is why only the lower parts are preserved.
- Koilon: With a semicircular shape, the koilon were basically the place of the theater reserved for the public, therefore, the stands. Important people (authorities and priests of Dionysus) and high society tended to sit in the first rows, their cost was high. A few seats even became quality armchairs, made entirely of marble, decorated with personal inscriptions.
- parody: it is known as the corridor or entrance for the spectators and the choir, located between the proskenion and the koilon.
It was not uncommon for various sculptures to appear from time to time on the upper part or at the entrance of the theater. As for the Roman buildings, these were usually similar, except for some distinctive features.
Such characteristics were the shape of the orkhestra and the stands, since they were not supported on a mountain or hill, but everything was practically factory. The most outstanding theaters that are still preserved today are those of Epidaurus, Delphi, Priene and Segesta, all belonging to the XNUMXth century BC.
Stadiums
Stadiums are another of the many structures in which the Greeks excelled. These were intended for sporting shows and had an elongated shape, with extensive stands that were normally supported on the side of a hill.
The sports that used to be practiced there were foot races and tug-of-wars. The Olympia Stadium is considered the oldest of all, with a length of around 600 feet, which is conceived exactly as that, as a stadium, since the unit of measurement arose in that precise place.
The Panathinaikó Stadium, also known as the Kallimármaro, located in Athens, was rebuilt in 1896 for the first edition of the Modern Olympic Games. Similarly, those of Epidaurus, Delphi, Milero and Priene remain in existence.
Delphi, was the site of the Pythian Games from the year 528 BC, and is recognized for being in the highest place in the valley of the sanctuary. Being there, it allows you to see the sanctuary of Apollo and the Delphic landscape. Its creation dates back to the second half of the 279th century BC, just after the Galatian attacks in XNUMX BC.
Housing and urban planning
Outside of what we conceive of as individual buildings, the truth is that the urban agglomerations in the different cities and states that made up Greece did not have any kind of specific plan. The streets of the nation were extremely narrow and winding, with a large number of buildings squeezing one another.
The architect, urban planner, mathematician, meteorologist and philosopher, Hippodamus of Miletus, is credited with the title of the father of urban planning, since various documents assert that he was the one who had the idea of creating the scheme of cities in a grid, the "Hypodamic Plan".
In other words, this man, who lived until the middle of the XNUMXth century BC. C., he was responsible for developing the regulatory urban plan of Ancient Greece, based on the form of a grid or grid, with the streets cutting regularly at right angles.
Despite this, the practical application of this planning was only feasible in newly built cities, such as those he later planned for Piraeus and Thuril. The city of late foundation, Olinto, is a very exceptional case of a classical city with a regular layout, due to the fact that it does present the influence of Hippodamus in the uniformity of its streets and blocks.
It was already in the Hellenistic period when the orientation could be modified, and it was decided to continue with the regularity of the plan. A clear example of this innovative approach is the renowned reconstruction of Priene in the Asian peninsula of Anatolia.
When this took place, there was considerable disparagement of the Agora, since it was enclosed on all four sides. Likewise, there was the development of other public constructions at the time, such as the famous and gigantic portico that dominated the entire Agora, the Stoa of Attalus, whose donation was part of the king of Pergamon, Attalus II.
With respect to the typology of the dwellings, between the XNUMXth and XNUMXth centuries BC. C., two aspects were the most popular. The most common houses at Olynthus throughout this period, and those of the XNUMXnd century at Delos, had fairly small rooms that were arranged in a rectangular pattern around an inner court composed of columns.
The second type of house is found in Priene, where the construction was also based on an interior patio, but with a different floor plan. Instead of having a series of cramped rooms, the main room area was a huge rectangular room that led to a colonnaded porch at the end.
In addition to this, as we entered the house, on the sides of the patio we found other small rooms, both for the service, as well as for the warehouses and kitchens. On the contrary, the houses of the Hellenistic period had a superior diversity that was noticeable with the naked eye.
To exemplify it, it could be mentioned that the wealthy people of Greece owned a good number of houses that featured thresholds, columns and doorways made entirely of marble. In addition, its floors were made with mosaics that represented human or animal scenes, and plastered and modeled walls in order to make them look like stone.
funerary monuments
Generally speaking, Greek funerary monuments were quite simple. However, if they had certain specific forms mentioned below:
- To the city of Athens, a fairly simple stele with relief figures belonged to him.
- To the Peloponnese peninsula, that of a tiny temple.
- The region of Macedonia was granted the title of excavated caves, either in the rock or in the ground, with all kinds of vaults and paintings.
- Finally, to the peninsula of Asia Minor, as in the Peloponnese, temples or sometimes hypogea, as in Macedonia.
Among all, it stood out by far for the lavish mausoleum of the Ionic order decorated with various reliefs and statues, which was raised in the ancient city of Halicarnassus in memory of Mausolus, King of Caria. This was commissioned by his wife Artemis in 353 BC Occasionally people were simply cremated and their ashes kept in urns or jars.
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