For centuries, altarpieces have been the great backdrop for the liturgy and the christian art, authentic visual machines that combine architecture, sculpture and painting. More than just a decoration, they are a doctrinal and devotional setting. that guides the gaze, educates and excites.
From the Middle Ages until well into the Baroque period, these complexes dominated the interiors of European temples and, in particular, the Iberian world and its overseas territories. Its evolution responds to theological, formal and technical changes, and its study opens doors to the history of art, liturgy and mentalities.
What is an altarpiece?
Strictly speaking, the altarpiece is the structure located behind or above the altar, composed of an architectural framework and pictorial-sculptural programs. The one in the main chapel is called the main altarpiece; those arranged by naves, ambulatories and chapels are known as lateral or minor.
Its frame can be made of wood, stone, metal or precious and semi-precious materials, and houses paintings, reliefs or free-standing sculptures. Many examples are mixed, combining polychrome carving and panel or canvas., according to local tradition and the client's resources.
Parts and essential vocabulary
To understand its architecture it is important to master its terminology. The bench or predella constitutes the lower band on which the main body rests; sometimes there is a sotabanco, closer to the ground.
The bodies are the horizontal stripes, and the streets, the vertical divisions. The resulting grid generates encasements where scenes or figures are arranged. The set of architectural elements is called masonry.
The upper part can be finished with an attic, a spine, or a lunette; the perimeter can be protected with a dust cover. When the altarpiece is articulated, it has an open and closed position., and in closing they are often decorated with grisailles that look like sculpture.
Liturgical origin and early evolution
The altarpiece was born linked to the altar and its worship. After the first freestanding and mobile tables of Christianity, the altar became fixed and dignified. The frontal antependium, with fabrics, metals and ivories, was a previous step, as well as the display of relics and aediculae or ciborium on or behind the altar.
In early Christian and pre-Romanesque churches, mural decoration, icons, and frontals predominate; in the Romanesque period, apse frescoes and wooden or metal frontals persist, some later converted into altarpieces. From the end of the 13th century the altarpiece gained prominence behind the altar, especially in northern Europe and the Iberian kingdoms.
Materials, techniques and trades
Gilded and polychrome wood was the most widespread material, although there was also alabaster, marble, silver and various stones. The dorado with a bowl and the stew on gold were key techniques, along with the incarnation of faces and hands.
Assemblers, carvers, sculptors, painters, gilders and embossers were involved. The plastering rig prepared the surface; then the bowl was applied, gilded and embossed, and finished with polychromy and glazes.
Architecture of the altarpiece: how the story is ordered
The design is usually geometric and hierarchical: streets and bodies organize narrative cycles (lives of Christ, the Virgin or a saint) or titular images in niches. The tabernacle or sanctuary gained centrality from the 15th century, coming to dominate some groups or to become exempt as a canopy.
In the Gothic period, canopies, pinnacles, cresting and a pronounced horror vacui flourish, with heraldry and portraits of clients. In the Renaissance, grotesques, candelieri, scrolls, tondos and classical orders redefined masonry., and in the Baroque period, the total scenography with Solomonic columns, stipes or polychrome marbles was imposed depending on the region.
Typologies: form and function
There are high table altarpieces and wall altarpieces, but also specific devices. Diptychs, triptychs and polyptychs (very common in Flanders and Central Europe) are closed with wings and alternate painting and carving.
There are altarpieces with an octagonal niche, double-fronted altarpieces for choir and faithful, fake altarpieces painted on walls when resources are lacking, and free-standing canopies on columns. For its function, the Eucharistic altarpiece with a manifestor stands out., those of Christ Recumbent in an urn, the stage machines that reveal relics with a mechanism, those of the Rosary, the reliquaries with cabinets accessible from behind, the showcase type or those with a large single canvas.
Articulated altarpieces: the Central European flügelaltar
In the Germanic and Flemish world, altarpieces with wings, with open and closed positions, became popular. When closed, the grisailles simulate stone sculpture., and when opened, the color and golden carving explode. This system favored protection, cleansing, and changes throughout the liturgical calendar.
Reformation, Counter-Reformation and changes in taste
In Protestant territories, aniconism and even iconoclasm were promoted, with severe losses. Anglicanism authorized the use of altarpieces and in the Lutheran sphere pieces by Cranach survived.
Gothic Europe: Focuses and Masters
In Bohemia, the Vyššà Brod and Třeboň altarpieces are particularly noteworthy, while the Rhine and Danube later saw large mixed collections of painting and carving. These models also influenced Italy and Spain, integrating into local traditions.
The Iberian Peninsula in the 14th and 15th centuries
Iberian Gothic altarpieces achieved extraordinary richness, with gilded and polychrome wood, and alabaster was abundant in Aragon. The main altarpiece of Girona in silver stands out., the oldest in Barcelona, ​​and pieces such as that of San Cristóbal (Prado) or that of Santo Domingo de Tamarite.
Key figures are the Master of Estimariu, Andrés Marzal de Sax, Pere Serra, Gherardo Starnina and the Quejana altarpiece. In the 15th century, Sancho de Rojas, the oldest of the Old Cathedral of Salamanca, shines., the major dismantling of León by Nicolás Francés, the Seo of Zaragoza in alabaster (Pere Johan and Hans of Swabia) and the extensive production of Bernat Martorell.
Other highlights include the Virgen dels Consellers (Lluis Dalmau), Peralta de la Sal (Jaume Ferrer II and Pedro GarcÃa de Benavarre), the panels by Nuno Gonçalves, the panel by Bartolomé Bermejo in Daroca, the work of Fernando Gallego, the largest monumental work in Seville Cathedral, and the devotional polyptych of Isabella the Catholic. The Cartuja de Miraflores culminates the period with Gil de Siloé, already on the threshold of the Renaissance.
Italy and Flanders in the transition to the Renaissance
In Italy, the pala maintained contained formats due to the very strong tradition of fresco, although Giotto, Simone Martini and Duccio produced notable polyptychs. The silver altarpiece of the Florence Baptistery is a goldsmith's milestone, and with Fra Angelico we see the structural transition towards a Architectural Renaissance.
The Della Robbias spread glazed terracotta; pilasters, orders, friezes, and grotesques populated the new masonry. In Flanders, the pictorial polyptychs of Van Eyck, Van der Weyden or Van der Goes and the sculptural altarpieces exported from Antwerp flooded Europe with devotion and technical innovation.
Spanish Renaissance: Plateresque, Mannerism and Romanesque
In Spain, Italian forms gradually penetrate, coexisting with the Spanish-Flemish substrate. Plateresque combines balusters, grotesques and stories in relief or painting, with examples such as the largest in Palencia, the one in the Royal Chapel of Granada, San Pelayo in Olivares de Duero, San Pablo in Palencia, San Miguel in Oñate or Calzadilla de los Barros.
In the Crown of Aragon, Damián Forment stands out: the Pillar of Zaragoza and Huesca in alabaster, Poblet and Santo Domingo de la Calzada in polychrome wood. He was followed by Juan de Moreto, Juan de Salas, Gabriel Yoly and later Cosme Damián Bas, even with unpainted wood in some cases.
Mannerism reached its peak with Alonso Berruguete (main altarpiece of San Benito de Valladolid) and Juan de Juni, of vehement expressiveness. Romanism is established with Gaspar Becerra in Astorga, Pedro López de Gámiz, the Hayas and Juan de Ancheta, paving the way for Escurial classicism.
The altarpiece of the Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial marks a before and after: design by Herrera, sculptures by Leone and Pompeo Leoni, and painting by Tibaldi and Zuccaro. He canonized noble materials, superimposed orders and the centrality of the tabernacle., influencing works such as VillagarcÃa de Campos or San Miguel and San Julián in Valladolid.
The Baroque: the golden age of the altarpiece
In the 17th and 18th centuries the altarpiece became the absolute protagonist of the interior of the churches of the Baroque architecture. Flat headboards and light transparencies become common., altarpieces with a niche, free-standing altarpieces, transparent altars, or reliquaries; the entire temple participates in an integrative decoration.
Italy favors marble and semiprecious materials, concentrating iconography in a large shovel or sculptural group. In the Southern Netherlands, large canvases from the Rubens school are added. and complex pulpits or ornate fonts, as an extension of Catholic fervor.
In Central Europe, in both Catholic and Lutheran areas, the altarpiece merges with stucco, sculptures, and architecture in ensembles that blur the mural box. In France, altarpieces dialogue with a particular Baroque spirituality., documented by modern studies.
In Spain, the regional variety is enormous. Salamanca consolidates Churrigueresque, in Toledo Narciso Tomé completes the transparent style, and the façade of the Obradoiro in Santiago connects with altarpieces like that of San MartÃn Pinario. Architects such as Gómez de Mora or Churriguera, sculptors such as Fernández, Mena, Montañés or Salzillo, and painters such as Murillo, Valdés Leal or Zurbarán they populate altarpieces throughout the country.
A sequence can be distinguished: extension of classicism in the first third of the 17th century, a traditional altarpiece with a Solomonic column and then a stipite in the second half, and a Rococo phase in the first third of the 18th century. Portugal develops the Eucharistic throne with strong symbolism, and the Portuguese and Hispanic world exports a rich baroque to Goa, Bahia, the Philippines and all of Spanish America.
From Rococo to the 20th century
Rococo introduced Louis XV ornamentation; Neoclassicism reacted with sobriety, replacing gilded wood with stone and Greco-Roman-inspired doorways. In the 19th century, eclectic and historicist altarpieces persisted., and in the 20th century the churches opened up to avant-garde movements, with unique cases such as Aránzazu.
The altarpiece as theatre and image
The word retablo also designates the stage of a puppet theatre and a theatrical idea present in Cervantes (Retablo de las maravillas) and Falla (El retablo de Maese Pedro). This true pretense of the theater transfers its logic to the illusory machines of the ecclesiastical altarpiece. as a tool of persuasion and sensitive control.
Texts, labels and inscriptions
In addition to images, many altarpieces incorporate words: identification of saints, mottos, Marian antiphons, doctrinal formulas or indulgences. A key technical use is the formula of consecration in the center of the bank, providing the celebrant with the text during the mass.
Other inscriptions record patrons, dates, costs or local miracles, along with heraldry and emblems. Sometimes hidden notes from the architects appear in the structure, useful for attributions, chronologies and logistics of the assembly.
How to order and make an altarpiece
The process begins with the design and contract between the client and the artist, detailing measurements, iconography, materials, deadlines, and payments. Sometimes the execution is auctioned at a low price., and the winning workshop assumes assembly and coordination of trades.
The pieces are assembled in a workshop or a temporary one next to the church; they are then transported and assembled dry. The gilding and polychrome require disassembling by elements, applying plaster, bowl, gold, embossing, and incarnation. Upon completion, the work is appraised, and there is no shortage of lawsuits over cost overruns.
Over time, repairs, repainting or regilding are undertaken according to needs and resources. Conservation is hampered by inadequate clean-up, environmental conditions and armed conflicts., which explains losses, dispersions and complex restorations.
Outstanding cases and examples by area
Medieval and late Gothic Hispanic area: Girona in silver, Barcelona, ​​San Cristóbal del Prado, Santo Domingo de Tamarite, Master of Estimariu, Marzal de Sax, Pere Serra, Quejana, Starnina, Sancho de Rojas, Old Salamanca, Leon by Nicolás Francés, Seville Cathedral in alabaster, Martorell, Virgen dels Consellers, Peralta de la Sal, Nuno Gonçalves, Daroca, Fernando Gallego, Seville Cathedral, polyptych of Isabel and Miraflores. All of them mark the maturity of the peninsular Gothic.
Central Europe and Flanders: late Gothic flügelaltäre with Pacher, Dürer, Grünewald, Altdorfer, Ratgeb, Baldung, the Cranachs and the Holbeins; sculptors such as Veit Stoss, Gerhaert, Riemenschneider or Haguenau. Isenheim, Kefermarkt or the Riemenschneider altars are essential milestones.
Quattrocentista and cinquecentista Italy: Giotto, Simone Martini, Duccio, Fra Angelico, the Della Robbia and Florentine goldsmiths add to the great tradition of the shovel. Classical grammar permeates pilasters, pediments and entablatures, sometimes integrating with trompe l'oeil effects.
Renaissance to Baroque Spain: Palencia, Granada, Zaragoza, Huesca, Poblet, Santo Domingo de la Calzada, Berruguete, Juni, Becerra, and El Escorial; later, Churrigueras, Cano, Fernández, Mena, Montañés, Salzillo, Murillo, Valdés Leal, and Zurbarán. The transparent one from Toledo, the churrigueresque one from Salamanca or San MartÃn Pinario are added like peaks.
The Madrid case: workshops, layouts and typologies
In Madrid, the Escurialense heritage marked the first third of the 17th century with classicist altarpieces of several bodies and sections, derived from Herrera, with large checkered canvases. The circle of Giovanni Battista Crescenzi left its mark on court architects and assemblers..
Alonso Cano contributed a cleaner and more legible model, with single-body altarpieces and larger niches, influencing Herrera Barnuevo and Pedro de la Torre. Pedro de la Torre spread the Solomonic and attics with buttresses, and Sebastián de Benavente consolidated his own courtly style.
Notable works: Buen Suceso (lost, known by print), the largest of San Pedro el Viejo (Benavente), the altarpiece of the Virgin of Guadalupe in the Descalzas Reales (Herrera Barnuevo) and the group of San Plácido (brothers of the Tower, with Claudio Coello and Rizi). They are milestones of Madrid's baroque.
Pamplona: series of Renaissance and Baroque altarpieces
Pamplona Cathedral offers a model sequence between 1597 and 1713: the main chapel, the Pity, Saint John the Baptist, Saint Benedict, the three Barbazana churches, Saint Jerome and Saint Gregory, Saint Joseph, Saint Catherine, Saint Martin, Saint John the Evangelist, Saint Christina, Saint Barbara, Saint Fermin, and the Trinity. Bishops, chapters, dignitaries, guilds and lay patrons intervene.
Styles range from Romanesque to Classical Baroque, and finally to the traditional style with solomonic works. Local and foreign authors alternate: Pedro González de San Pedro and Domingo de Bidarte in the late Renaissance; ZabalÃa in Barbazana; José de San Juan contributes solomonic works; and Miguel de Bengoechea writes Santa Catalina. In the 18th century, the academic mentality favored neoclassical replacements and reorganizations..
Viewed as a whole, the altarpiece is a living history of the Church and its peoples: language, technique, devotion, and power intersect in these machines of faith. Understanding their origin, parts, typologies, foci and great names allows us to better read entire temples., and appreciate a tradition that, despite changes in taste and function, remains one of the most powerful hallmarks of Hispanic and European art.
